History of Diplomacy and Technology

Continuity and change: We will first focus on the interplay between continuity and change in the evolution of diplomacy and technology. The core functions of diplomacy, such as negotiation and representation, have been present since the early days of diplomacy. These core functions have not changed substantially over the centuries. Rather, changes have occurred in how diplomacy has been performed. Here, technology has played a crucial role, starting with the appearance of language (the early 'communications technology'), via the telegraph and radio, up to the internet.

Information and communications: Next, we will look at information and communication, the two core pillars of diplomacy. We will analyse how information management has affected diplomacy, from the first diplomatic archive in Tell el-Amarna (Ancient Egypt), up to today’s diplomatic archives stored in the digital cloud. We will also examine how the various communications systems have influenced the style in which we communicate. Costly messages in the early days of the electrical telegraph forced diplomats to write concise, tweet-like short texts, while inexpensive fax messaging, and recently the internet, have made longer diplomatic messages possible.

Politics, topics, and tools: Finally, we will analyse the impacts technology had on the political environment in which diplomats operated (changes in sovereignty, increased interdependence), the topics they discussed (regulating telegraphy, and more recently, internet governance), and the tools they used (telegraph diplomacy, Twitter diplomacy).

In applying this methodology, we will try to identify common patterns through history, as well as the importance of the time–space context for the interplay between technology and diplomacy. 

A few caveats should be kept in mind.

First, communications technology is just one of the many catalysts of social, political, and economic developments. Highlighting technology as the only, or dominant, cause of developments in diplomacy might lead to oversimplification and technological determinism. We will try to weigh the importance of technological factors in a broader social and political context.

Second, historical analogies should be approached with great care, otherwise they might lead towards erroneous, although prima facie, conclusions. When looking for patterns in historical developments, one must understand that history rarely repeats itself in the same way. 

Third, the history of technology is not sequential, where one technology replaces another. Most technologies coexist with previous innovations in spite of various 'endism' predictions. The traditional postal service was not replaced by the telegraph; neither did the telephone 'kill' the telegraph; the radio coexists with television. In fact, with the exception of the telegraph, most communications innovations from the last two centuries, including snail mail, the telephone, radio, television, and fax, are still used today. Snail mail, one of the oldest organised methods of communication, is a successful business even today (e.g. DHL, FedEx).

This topic follows a historical timeline. We will start with a discussion about the early days of humanity and diplomacy in the pre-literary era. The second phase begins with the invention of writing by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, and the developments of diplomacy in the ancient world. We will pay particular attention to Amarna diplomacy (Ancient Egypt), considered by some historians to be the first example of a complete diplomatic system, featuring both representation and negotiation. We will then briefly turn to diplomacy during the Renaissance. The major weakness of our survey is the lack of historical analysis of developments in ancient civilisations beyond the Euro-Mediterranean world, as most of the available literature focuses on the Ancient Middle East and Europe. 

Our discussion will mostly focus on modern history, beginning with the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Dramatic changes, both in diplomacy and in technology, took place during this period: many countries established diplomatic services consisting of ministries of foreign affairs and professional diplomats, numerous multilateral negotiations were conducted in the post-Napoleonic Concert of Europe, and the first international organisations were established. On the technological side, the telegraph, the telephone, and the radio were all invented during this period.

Writing as the main diplomatic ‘technology’: The transition from prehistory to ancient history can be traced back to the fourth millennium BC when writing was invented by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. We also know that writing was invented independently later on in China and Central America. Writing is central to our discussion about the interplay between diplomacy and technology, as it was, is, and will remain the main 'technology' of diplomacy.

Mesopotamian diplomacy: Sumerians, the early inhabitants of Mesopotamia, invented writing sometime in the fourth millennium BC. Archaeologists discovered diplomatic documents from around 2500 BC. These documents include references to relations among city states, peace negotiations, arbitrations, and the status of envoys. In Babylonia, during the rule of Hammurabi (circa 1800 BC), a highly functional system of messengers was developed. The 20,000 Mari clay tablets also included the first references to diplomatic immunities, diplomatic passports, and letters of accreditation.

Amarna diplomacy: Amarna diplomacy is named after the Egyptian city of Tell el-Amarna, where archaeologists discovered the first diplomatic archive: clay tablets called the Amarna Letters. According to available sources, Tell el-Amarna was the capital of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (1550 BC–1292 BC), the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, and the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power under the reign of Amenhotep III (1390–1352 BC) and Amenhotep IV (1352–1336 BC). These dynasties oversaw a period of extensive creativity, particularly noticeable in the architectural constructions. Diplomacy was favoured over war.

In his book Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations, Raymond Cohen argued that Amarna diplomacy was the first fully-developed diplomatic system, comprising the main diplomatic techniques, including the sending of representatives, negotiating, and the handing out of immunities. He challenged the predominant view among diplomatic historians that the first diplomatic system was established in Italy during the Renaissance with the establishment of permanent embassies among Italian city states.

Hittite diplomacy: A few centuries after Amarna diplomacy, the next well-developed diplomatic system emerged in the Hittite Empire (1650 BC–1180 BC) in modern-day Turkey. Similar to Amarna diplomacy, Hittite diplomacy was a fully developed system, encompassing the typical diplomatic instruments and tools. Hittite diplomacy is well known for the first peace treaty (often called the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty) from around 1259 BC, made between Ramses II and Hattusili III. It is considered one of the oldest international treaties.

Assyrian diplomacy: As the Egyptian and the Hittite empires weakened, the Assyrian state emerged and reached its zenith during the Sargonid Dynasty (722 BC–612 BC). Assyria tried to extend its control over the historical Fertile Crescent region (region of the Middle East that contains parts of present-day Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Syria, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Cyprus). They were particularly interested in gaining control over the key trade routes. The powerful neighbours of Assyria were forced to form coalitions and alliances in order to counterbalance this emerging power. Assyrian dynasties used both war and diplomacy in order to achieve their goals.

Persian diplomacy: The Persian era is the bridge between the period of ancient civilisations and Ancient Greece. The Persian Empire was hegemonic, relying more on military might than on diplomatic skills. One of the main legacies of the Persians was a highly developed communication system – an ancient-era internet. Although the messenger system was developed for military purposes, it began to be used for receiving and sending envoys to neighbouring states and tribes. The Persian Empire discovered diplomacy in the last days of its existence when Darius III (c.330 BC) offered peace to Alexander the Great of Macedonia based on an ‘ancient friendship and alliance’. The refusal of this offer led to the conquering of the Persian Empire by Greece and the end of the period of ancient civilisations.

The Byzantine Empire (AD 395–1453) did not have the privilege of ruling the whole Mediterranean. After the collapse of Rome, Byzantium continued the tradition of the Roman Empire, constantly attempting to restore its glory. Without the power and the control of the old Roman Empire, Byzantium had to revert to diplomacy to a greater extent. Surrounded by hostile tribes from the Balkans, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, it used sophisticated techniques to keep them under control. The overextension of the Byzantine Empire required geographically broad diplomatic coverage, from China and India in the east, to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, from the interior of Africa, to the steppes of the Black Sea.

With regard to diplomatic practice, Byzantium took the first step towards establishing an apparatus (an early ministry of foreign affairs) for managing foreign relations. It also made use of international agreements. One of its most developed treaty practices was with the rulers of Kievan Rus (862–1242). The first treaty was signed with Oleg of Novgorod (AD 911), a later one with Igor of Kiev (AD 944). Treaties had a very broad coverage, including many provisions on cooperation in ‘criminal affairs’, including the Rus' right to extradition from Byzantium of any of its subjects who committed a criminal act.

The most important technological invention in this period was the electrical telegraph, which, for the first time in human history, effectively detached communication from transportation. Until the invention of the telegraph, the speed and reliability of communication depended on the different means of transportation available at the time, for example, durable foot messengers, fast horses, and ships for crossing large water obstacles.

As for diplomacy, the 1814/15 Congress of Vienna laid the foundation for modern diplomacy – including the introduction of diplomatic precedent and diplomatic ranks. The period between the Congress of Vienna and the First World War is often described as a golden age of diplomacy, which managed to secure one of the most peaceful periods in recent history. During this period, structural developments took place in both communication and diplomacy. Communications inventions became part of daily life, gradually becoming integrated into global telecommunications networks. Diplomacy was transformed from ad-hoc meetings into an organised system consisting of diplomatic services, international organisations, and habitual international gatherings.

As an illustration of the interplay between diplomacy and technology, one could conjecture that history between the Congress of Vienna and WWI would have been different if it were not for two important telegrams: Ems and Zimmerman. The Ems Telegram sparked the Franco-Prussian War, and led towards the establishment of Germany as a unified state. The Zimmerman Telegram, a secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in 1917, proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico, triggering the USA’s entrance into WWI.

The impact of the telegraph on diplomacy can be analysed in three contexts: changes in the environment for diplomatic activities, the introduction of new issues on diplomatic agendas, and the use of new tools.

The basis for radio broadcasting was created by scientific and technological breakthroughs in wireless communications. Both Guglielmo Marconi and Reginald Fessenden, who in 1906 managed to transfer sound via radio waves, were attempting to create a wireless telephone. In line with the principle of unintended consequences, their pursuit resulted in something else. This, as David Sarnoff suggested, was a ‘radio music box’. The technological basis developed for wireless telephony was used in one-way radio broadcasting. 

The previously established technological dynamism continued during and after WWII. The most significant tool that influenced the outcome of WWII was the radio. It was used as a propaganda and morale-boosting medium by all sides involved in the conflict. During the war and the immediate post-war period, the basic radio propaganda infrastructure was established.

While objecting to western radio broadcasting, the USSR developed a similar, if not even more powerful, radio system covering almost the entire globe. The jamming of radio programmes was used as an instrument of international relations and as a subject of certain diplomatic negotiations during the Cold War.

Radio broadcasting confirms that usually technological advances coexist with previous innovations in spite of various ‘endism’ predictions. Traditional mail was not replaced by the telegraph. The telephone did not ‘kill’ the telegraph. The radio coexists with television. In fact, with the exception of the telegraph, most communication innovations introduced during the last two centuries, including snail mail, the telephone, the radio, TV, and fax are still in widespread use today. Radio broadcasting was reborn on the internet with thousands of radio channels broadcast online.